%-----------------------------------------------------------------------
% general introductory document for LaTeX. Combines Warbrick's
% Essential LaTeX, Carlisle's elm (mathematics for essential latex), a
% set of maths examples from Michel Goossens, and tabular examples by
% Sebastian Rahtz. original changed to use `example' environment.
% various copyright notices still enclosed.
%
% Sebastian Rahtz 8.92 basic additions
% Adrian Clark    2.93 added cross-referencing and niceties
% Sebastian Rahtz 5.93 fixed for LaTeXe2 and onwards. 
% Sebastian Rahtz 8.93 fixed for HTML converter, and added AMS tables
%                        put material in essential.sty
% Sebastian Rahtz 1.94 fixed for LaTeX2e
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------
% Original Copyright (C) Jon Warbrick and Plymouth Polytechnic 1989
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------
\documentclass[twoside,a4paper]{article}
\usepackage{makeidx}
\usepackage{local}
\usepackage{essential}
\usepackage{times}
\usepackage{xspace}
\usepackage{example}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{latexsym}
% to keep latex2html quiet
\newcommand{\fn}[1]{\mbox{\texttt{#1}}}
\newcommand{\llo}[1]{(see line #1)}
\newcommand{\lls}[1]{(see lines #1)}
\newcommand{\eg}{e.g.,\xspace} %FMi
\newcommand{\ie}{i.e.,\@\xspace} %FMi
\newcommand{\etc}{etc.\@\xspace} %FMi
\begin{document}
\title{Essential \LaTeX\ ++}
\author{Jon Warbrick\\
with additions by David Carlisle, Michel Goossens, Sebastian Rahtz,
Adrian Clark}
\date{January  1994}
\maketitle
\tableofcontents
\listoftables
\section{Introduction}

This document is an attempt to give you all the \emph{essential}
information that you will need in order to use the \LaTeX{} document
preparation system\cite{Lamport:latex}.\footnote{For those readers who have some
familiarity with \LaTeX, this document assumes  the \LaTeXe{} release
of January 1994 or later}.
Only basic features are covered, and
a vast amount of detail has been omitted.  In a document of this size
it is not possible to include everything that you might need to know,
and if you intend to make extensive use of the program you should
refer to a more complete reference.  Attempting to produce complex
documents using only the information found below will require much
more work than it should, and will probably produce a less than
satisfactory result.

The main reference for \LaTeX{} is \emph{The \LaTeX{} User's guide
and Reference Manual} by Leslie Lamport\cite{Lamport:latex}. 
This contains all the information that you will ever need
to know about the program, and you will need access to a copy if you
are to use \LaTeX{} seriously.

Both the Manual and this document avoid mentioning anything that
depends on the particular computer system that you are using.  This is
because \LaTeX{} is available on a number of systems and they all
differ in one way or another.  Instead, they both refer to a
\emph{local guide} for their particular system.


\section{How Does \LaTeX{} Work?}

In order to use \LaTeX, you generate a file containing both the text
that you wish to typeset and instructions to tell \LaTeX{} how you
want it to appear.  You will normally create this file using your
system's text editor.  You can give the file any name you like, but it
should end ``\fn{.tex}'' to identify the file's contents.  You then
get \LaTeX{} to process the file, and it creates a new file of
typesetting commands; this has the same name as your file but the
``\fn{.tex}'' ending is replaced by ``\fn{.dvi}''.  This stands for
`\texttt{D}e\texttt{v}ice \texttt{I}ndependent' and, as the name
implies, this file can be used to create output on a range of printing
devices.  Your \emph{local guide} will go into more detail.

Rather than encourage you to dictate exactly how your document should
be laid out, \LaTeX{} instructions allow you to describe its 
\emph{logical structure}.  For example, you can think of a quotation
embedded within your text as an element of this logical structure: you
would normally expect a quotation to be displayed in a recognizable
style to set it off from the rest of the text.  A human typesetter
would recognize the quotation and handle it accordingly, but since
\LaTeX{} is only a computer program it requires your help.  There are
therefore \LaTeX{} commands that allow you to identify quotations and
consequently allow \LaTeX{} to typeset them correctly.

Fundamental to \LaTeX{} is the idea of a \emph{document class} that
determines exactly how a document will be formatted.  \LaTeX{}
provides standard document classes that describe how common logical
structures (such as quotations) should be formatted.  You may have to
supplement these styles by specifying the formatting of logical
structures peculiar to your document, such as mathematical formulae.
You can also modify the standard document classes or even create an
entirely new one, though you should know the basic principles of
typographical design before creating a radically new style.

There are a number of good reasons for concentrating on the logical
structure rather than on the appearance of a document.  Doing so
prevents you from making elementary typographical errors in the
mistaken belief that they improve the \ae sthetics of a document---you
should remember that the primary function of document design is to
make documents easier to read, not prettier.  It is also more
flexible, since you need only alter the definition of the quotation
style to change the appearance of \emph{all} the quotations in a
document.  Most important of all, logical design encourages better
writing.  A visual system makes it easier to create visual effects
rather than a coherent structure; logical design encourages you to
concentrate on your writing and makes it harder to use formatting as a
substitute for good writing.

\begin{figure}
\small
\begin{verbatim}
 1: % SMALL.TEX -- Released 5 July 1985
 2: % USE THIS FILE AS A MODEL FOR MAKING YOUR OWN LaTeX 
 3: % INPUT FILE. EVERYTHING TO THE RIGHT OF A  %  IS A 
 4: % REMARK TO  YOU AND IS IGNORED BY LaTeX.
 5: %
 6: % WARNING!  DO NOT TYPE ANY OF THE FOLLOWING 10 CHARACTERS 
 7: % EXCEPT AS DIRECTED:        &   $   #   %   _   {   }   ^   ~   \
 8:
 9: \documentclass[11pt]{article}% YOUR INPUT FILE MUST CONTAIN 
10: \begin{document}             % THESE TWO LINES PLUS 
11:                              % THE \end COMMAND AT THE END
12:
13: \section{Simple Text}    % THIS COMMAND MAKES A SECTION TITLE.
14:
15: Words are separated by one or    more      spaces.  Paragraphs are
16:     separated by one or more blank lines.  The output is not affected
17: by adding extra spaces or extra blank lines to the input file.
18:
19:
20: Double quotes are typed like this: ``quoted text''.
21: Single quotes are typed like this: `single-quoted text'.
22:
23: Long dashes are typed as three dash characters---like this.
24:
25: Italic text is typed like this: \emph{this is italic text}.
26: Bold   text is typed like this: \textbf{this is  bold  text}.
27:
28: \subsection{A Warning or Two}        % THIS MAKES A SUBSECTION TITLE.
29:
30: If you get too much space after a mid-sentence period---abbreviations
31: like etc.\ are the common culprits)---then type a backslash followed by
32: a space after the period, as in this sentence.
33:
34: Remember, don't type the 10 special characters (such as dollar sign and
35: backslash) except as directed!  The following seven are printed by
36: typing a backslash in front of them:  \$  \&  \#  \%  \_  \{  and  \}.
37: The manual tells how to make other symbols.
38:
39: \end{document}                    % THE INPUT FILE ENDS LIKE THIS
\end{verbatim}  
\caption{A Sample \LaTeX{} File}\label{fig:sample}
\index{figure}
\end{figure}


\begin{figure}

% This figure will only work if the main style of this document
% is article, or something like article, because that's what the example
% file thinks it is.  Unfortunately, I can't see how to include a
% \documentstyle command in a figure!

\setcounter{savesection}{\value{section}}
\setcounter{section}{0}
\setcounter{savesubsection}{\value{subsection}}
\setcounter{subsection}{0}

\setlength{\parindent}{17pt}
\setlength{\parskip}{0pt}

\noindent\rule{\textwidth}{0.8pt}

% SMALL.TEX -- Released 5 July 1985
% USE THIS FILE AS A MODEL FOR MAKING YOUR OWN LaTeX INPUT FILE.
% EVERYTHING TO THE RIGHT OF A  %  IS A REMARK TO YOU AND IS IGNORED
% BY LaTeX.
%
% WARNING!  DO NOT TYPE ANY OF THE FOLLOWING 10 CHARACTERS EXCEPT AS
% DIRECTED:        &   $   #   %   _   {   }   ^   ~   \

% .........................................................................
% \documentclass[11pt]{article}     % YOUR INPUT FILE MUST CONTAIN THESE
% \begin{document}                  % TWO LINES PLUS THE \end COMMAND AT
%                                   % THE END
% .........................................................................

\section{Simple Text}          % THIS COMMAND MAKES A SECTION TITLE.

Words are separated by one or    more      spaces.  Paragraphs are
    separated by one or more blank lines.  The output is not affected
by adding extra spaces or extra blank lines to the input file.


Double quotes are typed like this: ``quoted text''.
Single quotes are typed like this: `single-quoted text'.

Long dashes are typed as three dash characters---like this.

Italic text is typed like this: \emph{this is italic text}.
Bold   text is typed like this: \textbf{this is  bold  text}.

\subsection{A Warning or Two}        % THIS MAKES A SUBSECTION TITLE.

If you get too much space after a mid-sentence period---abbreviations
like etc.\ are the common culprits)---then type a backslash followed by
a space after the period, as in this sentence.

Remember, don't type the 10 special characters (such as dollar sign and
backslash) except as directed!  The following seven are printed by
typing a backslash in front of them:  \$  \&  \#  \%  \_  \{  and  \}.
The manual tells how to make other symbols.

% ................
% \end{document}
% ................

\noindent\rule{\textwidth}{0.8pt}

\setcounter{section}{\value{savesection}}
\setcounter{subsection}{\value{savesubsection}}

\caption{The Result of Processing the Sample File}\label{fig:result}

\end{figure}


\section{A Sample \LaTeX{} File}

Have a look at the example \LaTeX{} file in Figure~\ref{fig:sample}.
It is a slightly modified copy of the standard \LaTeX{} example file
\fn{small.tex}.  Your local guide will tell you how you can make your
own copy of this file.  The line numbers down the left-hand side are
not part of the file, but have been added to make it easier to refer
to various portions. Also have a look at Figure~\ref{fig:result} which
shows, more or less, the result of processing this file.


\subsection{Running Text}

Most documents consist almost entirely of running text---words formed
into sentences, which are in turn formed into paragraphs---and the
example file is no exception. Describing running text poses no
problems, you just type it in naturally. In the output that it
produces, \LaTeX{} will fill lines and adjust the spacing between
words to give tidy left and right margins.  The spacing and
distribution of the words in your input file will have no effect at
all on the eventual output.  Any number of spaces in your input file
are treated as a single space by \LaTeX{}.  It also regards the end of
each line as a space between words \lls{15--17}.  A new paragraph is
indicated by a blank line in your input file, so don't leave any blank
lines unless you really wish to start a paragraph.

\LaTeX{} reserves a number of the less common keyboard characters for
its own use. The ten characters
\begin{quote}\begin{verbatim}
#  $  %  &  ~  _  ^  \  {  }
\end{verbatim}\end{quote}
should not appear as part of your text---if they do, \LaTeX{} will get
confused.


\subsection{\LaTeX{} Commands}

There are a number of words in the file that start with `\verb|\|'
\lls{9, 10 and 13}.  These are \LaTeX{} \emph{commands} and they
describe the structure of your document.  There are several things
that you should realize about these commands:

\begin{itemize}
\item All \LaTeX{} commands consist of a `\verb|\|' followed by one or
  more characters.
  
\item \LaTeX{} commands should be typed using the correct mixture of
  upper- and lower-case letters.  \verb|\BEGIN| and \verb|\Begin| are
  \emph{not} the same as \verb|\begin|.
  
\item Some commands are placed within your text.  These are used to
  switch things, like different typestyles, on and off. The
  \verb|\small| command is used like this to emphasize text, normally
  by changing to an \textit{italic} typestyle \llo{25}.  The command
  and the text are always enclosed between `\verb|{|' and
    `\verb|}|'---the `\verb|{\em|' turns the effect on and and the
    `\verb|}|' turns it off. All the typeface-changing switches like
  this have a corresponding \emph{command} with an argument --- all
  the possibilities are shown on page~\pageref{fonts}.

\item There are other commands that look like
  \begin{quote}\begin{verbatim}
    \command{text}
  \end{verbatim}\end{quote}
  In this case, \fn{text} is called the ``argument'' of the command.
\index{command!argument}%
  The \verb|\section| command is like this \llo{13}.  Sometimes you
  have to use curly brackets `\verb|{}|' to enclose the argument,
  sometimes square brackets `\verb|[]|', and sometimes both.  There is
  method behind this apparent madness, but for the time being you
  should be sure to copy the commands exactly as given.
  
\item When a command's name is made up entirely of letters, you must
  make sure that the end of the command is marked by something that
  isn't a letter.  This is usually either the opening bracket around
  the command's argument, or a space.  When it's a space, that space
  is always ignored by \LaTeX.  We shall see later that this can
  sometimes be a problem.
\end{itemize}


\subsection{Overall Structure}

There are some \LaTeX{} commands that must appear in every document.
The actual text of the document always starts with a
\verb|\begin{document}| command and ends with an \verb|\end{document}|
command \lls{10 and 39}.  Anything that comes after the
\verb|\end{document}| command is ignored.  Everything that comes
before the \verb|\begin{document}| command is called the 
\emph{preamble}.  The preamble should contain only \LaTeX{} commands to
describe the document's style.

One command that must appear in the preamble is the
\verb|\documentclass| command \llo{9}.  This command specifies the
overall style for the document.  Our example file is a simple
technical document and uses the \texttt{article} style, modified to
print in eleven-point fonts.  There are other styles that you can use,
as you will discover in Section~\ref{sec:styles}.


\subsection{Other Things to Look At}

\LaTeX{} can print both opening and closing quote characters, and can
manage either of these either single or double.  To do this, it uses
the two quote characters from your keyboard: \texttt{`} (which sometimes
resembles a grave accent or back-quote) and \texttt{'} (apostrophe).  You
type these characters once for single quote \llo{21}, and twice for
double quotes \llo{20}. The double quote character itself \texttt{"} is
almost never used.

\LaTeX{} can produce three different kinds of dashes.  A long dash,
for use as a punctuation symbol, as is typed as three dash characters
in a row, like this `\verb|---|' \llo{23}.  A shorter dash, used
between numbers as in `10--20', is typed as two dash characters in a
row, while a single dash character is used as a hyphen.

From time to time, you will need to include one or more of the
\LaTeX{} special symbols in your text.  Seven of them can be printed
by making them into commands by proceeding them by backslash \llo{36}.
The remaining three symbols can be produced by more advanced commands,
as can symbols that do not appear on your keyboard such as \dag,
\ddag, \S, \pounds, \copyright, $\sharp$ and $\clubsuit$.

It is sometimes useful to include comments in a \LaTeX{} file, to
remind you of what you have done or why you did it.  Everything to the
right of a \verb|%|-sign is ignored by \LaTeX{}, and so it can
be used to introduce a comment.


\section{Document Classes and Options}
\label{sec:styles}
\index{style}

There are four standard document classes available in \LaTeX :

\begin{description}
\item[\texttt{article}] intended for short documents and articles for
  publication.  Articles do not have chapters, and when
  \verb|\maketitle| is used to generate a title (see
  Section~\ref{sec:title}), the title appears at the top of the first
  page rather than on a page of its own.
  
\item[\texttt{report}] intended for longer technical documents.  It is
  similar to \texttt{article}, except that it contains chapters and the
  title appears on a page of its own.
  
\item[\texttt{book}] intended as a basis for book publication.  Page
  layout is adjusted assuming that the output will eventually be used to
  print on both sides of the paper.
  
\item[\texttt{letter}] intended for producing personal letters.  This
  style will allow you to produce all the elements of a well laid out
  letter: addresses, date, signature, \etc.
\end{description}

These standard styles can be modified by a number of \emph{options}.
They appear in square brackets after the \verb|\documentclass|
command.  Only one class can be used in a document but you can have
more than one option, in which case their names should be
separated by commas.  The standard options are:

\begin{description}
\item[\texttt{11pt}] prints the document using eleven-point type for the
  running text rather that the ten-point type normally used.
  Eleven-point type is about ten percent larger than ten-point.
  
\item[\texttt{12pt}] prints the document using twelve-point type for the
  running text rather than the ten-point type normally used.
  Twelve-point type is about twenty percent larger than ten-point.
  
\item[\texttt{twoside}] causes documents in the article or report styles
  to be formatted for printing on both sides of the paper.  This is the
  default for the book style.
  
\item[\texttt{twocolumn}] produces two columns of text on each page.
  
\item[\texttt{titlepage}] causes the \verb|\maketitle| command to
  generate a title on a separate page for documents in the \fn{article}
  style.  A separate page is always used in both the \fn{report} and
  \fn{book} styles.
\end{description}

There is further option which is very useful in
European countries. The \fn{a4paper} option causes the output in all
of the standard styles to be adjusted to fit correctly on A4 paper.
(\LaTeX{} was designed in America where the standard paper is shorter
and slightly wider than A4; without this option you will find that
your output looks a little strange.)

\section{Environments}

We mentioned earlier the idea of identifying a quotation to \LaTeX{}
so that it could arrange to typeset it correctly. To do this you
enclose the quotation between the commands \verb|\begin{quotation}|
and \verb|\end{quotation}|.  This is an example of a \LaTeX{}
construction called an \emph{environment}.  A number of special
effects are obtained by putting text into particular environments.


\subsection{Quotations}

There are two environments for quotations: \fn{quote} and
\fn{quotation}.  \fn{quote} is used either for a short quotation or
for a sequence of short quotations separated by blank lines:

\begin{example}
US presidents have been known for
their pithy remarks:
\begin{quote}
The buck stops here.

I am not a crook.
\end{quote}
\end{example}

Use the \fn{quotation} environment for quotations that consist of more
than one paragraph.  Paragraphs in the input are separated by blank
lines as usual:

\begin{example}
Here is some advice to remember:
\begin{quotation}
Environments for making quotations
can be used for other things as well.

Many problems can be solved by
novel applications of existing
environments.
\end{quotation}
\end{example}


\subsection{Centering and Flushing}

Text can be centred on the page by putting it within the \fn{center}
environment, and it will appear flush against the left or right
margins if it is placed within the \fn{flushleft} or \fn{flushright}
environments.  Notice the spelling of \fn{center}---unfortunately
\LaTeX{} doesn't understand the British English spelling.

Text within these environments will be formatted in the normal way; in
particular, the ends of the lines that you type are regarded as spaces.
To indicate a new line, you type the \verb|\\| command.  For example:

\begin{example}
\begin{center}
one
two
three \\
four \\
five
\end{center}
\end{example}


\subsection{Lists}

There are three environments for constructing lists.  In each one,
each new item is begun with an \verb|\item| command.  In the
\fn{itemize} environment, the start of each item is given a marker,
while, in the \fn{enumerate} environment, each item is marked by a
number.  These environments can be nested within each other, in which
case the amount of indentation used and the marker are adjusted
accordingly:

\begin{example}
\begin{itemize}
\item Itemized lists are handy.
\item However, don't forget
  \begin{enumerate}
  \item The `item' command.
  \item The `end' command.
  \end{enumerate}
\end{itemize}
\end{example}

The third list-making environment is \fn{description}.  In a
\fn{description} you specify the item labels inside square brackets
after the \verb|\item| command.  For example:

\begin{example}
Three animals that you should
know about are:
\begin{description}
  \item[gnat] A small animal that causes
    no end of trouble.
  \item[gnu] A large animal that causes
    no end of trouble.
  \item[armadillo] A medium-sized animal.
\end{description}
\end{example}


\subsection{Verbatim Output}

Sometimes you will want to include text exactly as it appears on a
terminal screen.  For example, you might want to include part of a
computer program.  Not only do you want \LaTeX{} to stop playing
around with the layout of your text, you also want to be able to type
all the characters on your keyboard without confusing \LaTeX. The
\fn{verbatim} environment has this effect:

\begin{example}
The section of program in
question is:
\begin{verbatim}
{ this finds %a & %b }

for i := 1 to 27 do
   begin
   table[i] := fn(i);
   process(i)
   end;

\end{verbatim}
\end{example}


\section{Type Styles}

We have already come across the \verb|\emph| command for changing the
typeface to emphasis.  Here is a full list of the available
typeface changing commands:\label{fonts}

\begin{tabular}{@{}lll@{}}
\textit{Command} & \emph{or} & \textit{Effect} \\[4pt]
\Cmd{textrm}\verb|{...}| & \verb|{|\Cmd{rmfamily}\verb|...}| &
           Text is set  in roman family  \\
\Cmd{textsf}\verb|{...}| & \verb|{|\Cmd{sffamily}\verb|...}| &
           Text is set  in \textsf{sans serif} family  \\
\Cmd{texttt}\verb|{...}| & \verb|{|\Cmd{ttfamily}\verb|...}| &
           Text is set  in \texttt{typewriter} family
                                                           \\[3pt]
\Cmd{textmd}\verb|{...}| & \verb|{|\Cmd{mdseries}\verb|...}| &
            Text is set in medium series    \\
\Cmd{textbf}\verb|{...}| & \verb|{|\Cmd{bfseries}\verb|...}| &
            Text is set in \textbf{bold} series    \\[3pt]
\Cmd{textup}\verb|{...}| & \verb|{|\Cmd{upshape}\verb|...}| &
            Text is set in upright shape  \\

\Cmd{textit}\verb|{...}| & \verb|{|\Cmd{itshape}\verb|...}| &
            Text is set in \textit{italic} shape  \\
\Cmd{textsl}\verb|{...}| & \verb|{|\Cmd{slshape}\verb|...}| &
            Text is set in \textsl{slanted} shape  \\
\Cmd{textsc}\verb|{...}| & \verb|{|\Cmd{scshape}\verb|...}| &
            Text is set in \textsc{small caps} shape
                                                           \\[3pt]
\Cmd{emph}\verb|{...}| & \verb|{|\Cmd{em}\verb|...}| &
             Text is set  \emph{emphasized}  \\[3pt]
\Cmd{textnormal}\verb|{..}|  & \verb|{|\Cmd{normalfont}\verb|..}| &
             Text is set in the document font
\end{tabular}

Remember that the declaration versions (second column) are used
\emph{inside a pair of braces} to limit the amount of text that they
affect. It is recommended that you use the commands (first column)
with a parameter of the text to typeset differently.  In addition to
the typeface commands, there are a set of commands that alter the size
of the type.  These commands are:

{\Huge

\begin{example}
\tiny tiny
\scriptsize scriptsize
\footnotesize footnotesize
\small small
\normalsize normalsize
\large large
\Large Large
\LARGE LARGE
\huge huge
\Huge Huge
\end{example}

}


\section{Sectioning Commands and Tables of Contents}

Technical documents, like this one, are often divided into sections.
Each section has a heading containing a title and a number for easy
reference.  \LaTeX{} has a series of commands that will allow you to
identify different sorts of sections.  Once you have done this,
\LaTeX{} takes on the responsibility of laying out the title and of
providing the numbers.

The commands that you can use are:
\begin{quote}\begin{tabbing}
\verb|\subsubsection| \= \verb|\subsubsection|~~~~~~~~~~ \=           \kill
\verb|\chapter|       \> \verb|\subsection|    \> \verb|\paragraph|    \\
\verb|\section|       \> \verb|\subsubsection| \> \verb|\subparagraph| \\
\end{tabbing}\end{quote}
The naming of these last two is rather unfortunate, since they do not
really have anything to do with `paragraphs' in the normal sense of
the word: they are just lower levels of section.  In most document
styles, headings made with \verb|\paragraph| and \verb|\subparagraph|
are not numbered.  \verb|\chapter| is not available in document style
\fn{article}.  The commands should be used in the order given, since
sections are numbered within chapters, subsections within sections,
\etc.

A seventh sectioning command, \verb|\part|, is also available.  Its
use is always optional, and it is used to divide a large document into
series of parts.  It does not alter the numbering used for any of the
other commands.

Including the command \verb|\tableofcontents| in your document will
cause a contents list to be included, containing information collected
from the various sectioning commands.  You will notice that each time
your document is run through \LaTeX{} the table of contents is always
made up of the headings from the \emph{previous} time you ran
\LaTeX{} on it.  This is because \LaTeX{} collects information for the
table as it processes the document, and then includes it the next time
it is run.  This can sometimes mean that the document has to be
processed through \LaTeX{} \emph{twice} to get a correct table of
contents.


\section{Producing Special Symbols}

You can include in your \LaTeX{} document a wide range of symbols that
do not appear on your keyboard.  For a start, you can add an accent to
any letter:
\begin{center}\begin{tabular}{|ll|ll|ll|}
\hline
\WW\`{o}&\WW\~{o}&\WW\v{o}\\
\WW\c{o}&\WW\'{o}&\WW\={o}\\
\WW\H{o}&\WW\d{o}&\WW\^{o}\\
\WW\.{o}&\WW\t{oo}&\WW\b{o}\\
\WW\"{o}&\WW\u{o}&&\\
\hline
\end{tabular}\end{center}

Several other symbols are available and are generated using the
following commands:
\begin{quote}\begin{tabbing}

\LaTeX~\= \verb|\copyright|~~~~ \= \LaTeX~\= \verb|\copyright|~~~~ \=
\LaTeX~\=  \kill

\dag       \> \verb|\dag|       \> \S     \> \verb|\S|     \>
\copyright \> \verb|\copyright| \\
\ddag      \> \verb|\ddag|      \> \P     \> \verb|\P|     \>
\pounds    \> \verb|\pounds|    \\
\oe        \> \verb|\oe|        \> \OE    \> \verb|\OE|    \>
\ae        \> \verb|\AE|        \\
\AE        \> \verb|\AE|        \> \aa    \> \verb|\aa|    \>
\AA        \> \verb|\AA|        \\
\o         \> \verb|\o|         \> \O     \> \verb|\O|     \>
\l         \> \verb|\l|         \\
\L         \> \verb|\E|         \> \ss    \> \verb|\ss|    \>
?`         \> \verb|?`|         \\
!`         \> \verb|!`|         \> \ldots \> \verb|\ldots| \>
\LaTeX     \> \verb|\LaTeX|     \\
\end{tabbing}\end{quote}
There is also a \verb|\today| command that prints the current date.
When you use these commands remember that \LaTeX{} will ignore any
spaces that follow them, so that you can type `\verb|\pounds 20|' to
get `\pounds 20'.  However, if you type `\verb|\LaTeX is wonderful|'
you will get `\LaTeX is wonderful'---notice the lack of space after
\LaTeX.  To overcome this problem you can follow any of these commands
by a pair of empty braces and then any spaces that you wish to
include, and you will see that \verb|\LaTeX{} really is wonderful!|
(\LaTeX{} really is wonderful!).

Finally, \LaTeX{} `math' mode, normally used to layout mathematical
formulae, gives access to an even larger range of symbols, including
the upper and lower case greek mathematical alphabet, calligraphic
letters, mathematical operators and relations, arrows and a whole lot
more.  This will be discussed in Section~\ref{sec:math}.


\section{Titles}
\label{sec:title}
\index{title}

Most documents have a title.  To title a \LaTeX{} document, you
include the following commands in your document, usually just after
\verb|\begin{document}|.
\begin{quote}\footnotesize\begin{verbatim}
\title{required title}
\author{required author}
\date{required date}
\maketitle
\end{verbatim}\end{quote}
If there are several authors, then their names should be separated by
\verb|\and| in the \verb|\author| command; they can also be separated
by \verb|\\| if you want them to be centred on different lines.  If
the \verb|\date| command is left out, then the current date will be
printed.

\begin{minipage}{.48\textwidth}
\begin{verbatim}
\title{Essential \LaTeX}
\author{Jon Warbrick \and A N Other}
\date{14th February 1988}
\maketitle
\end{verbatim}
\end{minipage}\hfill
\begin{minipage}{.48\textwidth}
\begin{center}
{\normalsize Essential \LaTeX}\\[4ex]
J Warbrick\hspace{1em}A N Other\\[2ex]
14th February 1988
\end{center}
\end{minipage}

The exact appearance of the title varies depending on the document
style.  In the \fn{report} and \fn{book} styles, the title appears on
a page of its own.  In the \fn{article} style, it normally appears at
the top of the first page; use the class option \fn{titlepage} to
alter this (see Section~\ref{sec:styles}).
 
 
\section{Tabular Material}
\label{tab}
\label{tables}

Because \LaTeX{} will almost always convert a sequence of spaces into
a single space, it can be rather difficult to lay out tables.  See
what happens in this example \nolinebreak

\begin{example}
\begin{flushleft}
Income  Expenditure Result    \\
20s 0d  19s 11d     happiness \\
20s 0d  20s 1d      misery  
\end{flushleft}
\end{example}
\index{flushleft}
The \fn{tabbing} environment overcomes this problem. Within it, you
set tab-stops and tab to them much as you would do on a typewriter.
Tab-stops are set with the \verb|\=| command, and the \verb|\>|
command moves to the next stop.  The \verb|\\| command is used to
separate each line.  A line that ends in \verb|\kill| produces no
output, and can be used to set tab-stops:

\begin{example}
\begin{tabbing}
Income \=Expenditure \=       \kill
Income \>Expenditure \>Result \\
20s 0d \>19s 11d \>Happiness  \\
20s 0d \>20s 1d  \>Misery    
\end{tabbing}
\end{example}
\index{tabbing}

Unlike a typewriter's tab key, the \verb|\>| command always moves to
the next tab-stop in sequence, even if this means moving to the left.
This can cause text to be overwritten if the gap between two tab-stops
is too small.

If you have more sophisticated tabular work, you will need the
\fn{tabular} environment.  This differs from \fn{tabbing} in that you
need not worry about widths of columns---\LaTeX\ will look at the
whole table and see how wide columns need to be to cope with the
widest entries in them. You must, however, tell \LaTeX\ how many
columns there are and how you wish to lay them out.  You do this by
supplying a \emph{template} after \verb|\begin{tabular}| with a
letter for each column:

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ll}
\fn{l} &  means the column will be left justified \\
\fn{r} &  means the column will be right justified\\
\fn{c} &  means the column will be centred
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\index{tabular}%
\noindent Items within a row are separated by the \& character (now
you know why it is treated specially), and the row is ended, as
before, with \verb|\\|.  A simple table with three columns and two
rows looks like:
\begin{example}
\begin{tabular}{lrr}
\em Name & \em Age &\em Height \\
Sebastian & 45 & 195cm         \\
Mathew    & 1 & 68cm
\end{tabular}
\end{example}

Various other bells and whistles can be used to make the layout nicer:

\begin{enumerate}
\item You can put \verb|\hline| between rows to draw a line across the
  table.

\item Type a \verb+|+ in the template where you want a vertical bar
  down every row of the table.
  
\item You can specify that a column is of a fixed width with text
  flowing within it by using the symbol \verb|p| in the template,
  followed by a width between \verb|{| and \verb|}|. The width can be
  given in any of `cm', `mm' or `in' (but not `inches'!).
\end{enumerate}
Thus, a more sophisticated table might look like this:
\begin{example}
\begin{tabular}{|l|p{1in}|r|}  \hline
\em Group &\em Type &Sherds  \\\hline
Groups 1--9   &Grey wares&218\\
Groups 40--44 &Black (mostly 
`black burnished')  wares&116\\
Groups 61--67 &Buff-red-orange 
wares & 46                   \\
Groups 81--85 &Colour-coated 
fine wares & 67              \\
Groups 91--2, 93--4&Mortaria 
and miscellaneous & 35       \\
Group 96 &Samian & 56        \\\hline
 &&538                       \\\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{example}

\noindent Note that line-endings in what you type are not important;
rows end only when a \verb|\\| is found.


\section{Tables and Figures}

When you lay out some text and numbers in a table, it is almost always
intended that the whole unit stays together, not breaking over a page.
What do you do when you are at the bottom of a page with not enough
space left? Similarly, what do you do when you want to leave space for
a photograph to be pasted in? When you are typing the text, you do not
know where \LaTeX\ will start a new page, so it is often very
difficult to leave space just where you want. \LaTeX\ solves this by a
system of `floats', objects that will be placed in a nice position on
the page, but not necessarily exactly where you put it in your file.
They will often be placed at the bottom of the current page, or at the
top of the next, or on a page by themselves, if they need that much
space. \LaTeX\ lets you specify two sorts of float, namely 
\emph{tables} and \emph{figures}; in each of them you can specify a
caption. The following shows how you would set up space for a figure
in which you wanted to leave 3 inches of space, followed by a caption:
\begin{verbatim}
  \begin{figure}
  \vspace{3in}
  \caption{A Photograph of my Subject}
  \end{figure}
\end{verbatim}
Figures and tables are automatically numbered, like sections; just as
\verb|\tableofcontents| lists your sections, subsections, \etc\ with
their page numbers, \verb|\listoffigures| and \verb|\listoftables|
will list the figures and tables with their captions.


\section{Cross-References and Citations}

One of the most useful things \LaTeX{} can do for you is to to
automatically generate a section, page, figure, table, or equation
number in a cross-reference.  For example, to refer to
Section~\ref{sec:styles} of this report (on document styles) and
Figure~\ref{fig:result} (the output of processing \fn{sample.tex}) in
this sentence, the commands used were:
\begin{verbatim}
to refer to Section~\ref{sec:styles} of this report (on document
styles) and Figure~\ref{fig:result} (the output of processing
\end{verbatim}
You will see that the \verb|\ref| command inserted the
cross-references number into the printed document.  The \verb|~|
simply inserts a space while prohibiting \LaTeX{} from breaking a
line.

Of course, to refer to a cross-reference, there must be an indication
in the \LaTeX{} input file of the point being referred to.  This is
done via the \verb|\label| command.  The label for a section is most
conveniently done immediately after the section heading, as in:
\begin{verbatim}
\section{Document Classes and Options}
\label{sec:styles}
\end{verbatim}
and that for a figure or table in or immediately following the
\verb|\caption| command:
\begin{verbatim}
\caption{The Result of Processing the Sample File}
\label{fig:result}
\end{verbatim}
Any text may be used in \verb|\label| and \verb|\ref| commands, though
the convention impled above is a good one to follow.  Page references
use \verb|\label| in the same way, but are referred to using
\verb|\pageref| instead of \verb|\ref|.
\index{label}\index{reference}\index{pageref}

In much the same way that you can refer to other parts of your
document from the \LaTeX{} file symbolically, you may cite other
documents.  To do this, you include the \verb|\cite| command in your
text, as in
\begin{verbatim}
The book by Lamport \cite{Lamport-LaTeX} is the principal
reference work on \LaTeX.
\end{verbatim}
The argument to the \verb|\cite| command, known as the \emph{citation
key}, is used to uniquely identify a paper, book, or other document
that has been described in a \emph{bibliographic database}.

Having cited other work from your document, you can generate a list of
references by including the commands
\begin{verbatim}
\bibliographystyle{plain}
\bibliography{mybib1,mybib2}
\end{verbatim}
where you want the list to appear.  The \verb|\bibliographystyle|
command tells \LaTeX{} how you want the citations to appear, the
standard ones being:
\begin{description}
\item[\fn{plain}] Citations are sorted alphabetically in the list,
  with each entry being assigned a number; entries in the text are
  indicated in square brackets.
  
\item[\fn{unsrt}] Citations are ordered in the reference list in the
  order of their first appearance and assigned a number; entries in
  the text are indicated in square brackets.
  
\item[\fn{alpha}] Citations are sorted alphabetically in the list
  but have labels like ``Lam86'' instead of a number; the same label
  appears in the text in square brackets.

\item[\fn{abbrev}] Citations are similar to \fn{alpha} but are more
  compact (\eg by abbreviating month and journal names).
\end{description}

The argument of the \verb|\bibliography| command is a comma-separated
list of filenames, which should end in \fn{.bib} (\ie \fn{mybib1.bib}
and \fn{mybib2.bib} in the example above).  These files contain the
expanded references referred to by the \verb|\cite| commands.  A full
description of the format of these \fn{.bib} files and how the
citations are converted to a \LaTeX -compatible form are beyond the
scope of this (introductory) guide; details are given in Appendix~B of
Lamport's book.

\section{Mathematical Typesetting} 
\label{sec:math}
\index{mathematics}
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------
% This is a supplement to:
% Essential LaTeX - Jon Warbrick 02/88
%                 - W T Hewitt, MCC CGU August 1989
% giving a brief overview of mathematical typesetting using LaTeX
%                      D. P. Carlisle 22/9/89
% I reproduce here the copyright notice from Essential LaTeX, the same
% conditions apply to this document.
%   Permission is granted to reproduce the document in any way providing
%   that it is distributed for free, except for any reasonable charges for
%   printing, distribution, staff time, etc.  Direct commercial
%   exploitation is not permitted.  Extracts may be made from this
%   document providing an acknowledgement of the original source is
%   maintained.
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------

\subsection{Math, Display-math and Equation}

Mathematics is treated by \TeX\ completely differently from ordinary
text.  There are two special \emph{modes} for mathematics, known as
\emph{math mode} and \emph{display math mode}.
 
Math mode commands are surrounded by \verb|\(|\ldots\verb|\)| or by
\verb|$|\ldots\verb|$|.

\begin{example}
Some mathematics set inline 
\( 2\times 3 =   6 \).
Note that spaces in the input file 
are ignored in math mode.
\end{example}
 
Display math mode commands are surrounded by \verb|\[|\ldots\verb|\]|.

\begin{example}
A larger equation to be displayed on a line by itself.
\[ f(x) = \sum_{i=0}^{\infty}\frac{f^{(i)}(x)}{i!} \]
\end{example}
 
\noindent There is a variant of display math mode, the \fn{equation}
environment, which automatically generates an equation number.

\begin{example}
\begin{equation}
\left(\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 2 \\0 & 1
\end{array}\right)
\left(\begin{array}{cc}
2 & 0\\1 & 3
\end{array}\right)
=
\left(\begin{array}{cc}
4 & 6 \\1 & 3
\end{array}\right)
\end{equation}
\end{example}
 
These short examples show the main types of commands available in math
mode.  A few things to note are:

\begin{enumerate}
\item Subscripts and superscripts are produced with \verb|_| and
  \verb|^|, as in \verb|x_{1} = p^{2}| for \(x_{1} = p^{2}\).

\item Fractions are produced by the \verb|\frac| command:
  \verb|\(\frac{a + b}{c}\)| gives \(\frac{a + b}{c}\).

\item Various commands give names to mathematical symbols:\\ 
 \verb|\infty \Rightarrow \surd \bigotimes | generate
  \(\infty\;\Rightarrow\;\surd\;\bigotimes\)
  
\item Arrays are produced by the \fn{array} environment. This is
  identical to the \fn{tabular} environment described in
  Section~\ref{tab} except that the entries are typeset in math mode
  instead of LR mode.  Note that the \fn{array} environment does not
  put brackets arround the array, so it can also be used for setting
  determinants---or even sets of equations in which you want the
  columns to line up.
  
\item The commands \verb|\left| and \verb|\right| produce delimiters
  that grow as large as needed.  They can be used with a variety of
  symbols, \eg \verb|\left(| \verb|\left\{| \verb!\left|!. The full
  set of these delimiters is shown in tables \ref{tab:dels} 
  and \ref{tab:ldels} below.
\end{enumerate}
 

\subsection{Spacing}

All spaces in the input file are ignored in math mode. Sometimes you
may want to adjust the spacing; use one of the following commands to
achieve this.

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ll}
\verb|\,| thin space          &\verb|\:| medium space \\
\verb|\!| negative thin space &\verb|\;| thick space \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
 
\noindent A good example of where \LaTeX\ needs some help with spacing
is

\begin{example}
\(\int\!\!\int z\, dx dy .. \int\int z dx dy\)
\end{example}
 

\subsection{Changing Fonts in Math Mode}

The default math mode font is $math\ italic$. This should not be
confused with ordinary \emph{text italic}.  The font for `ordinary'
letters can be changed with the usual commands, \verb|\emph|,
\verb|\textbf|, \etc.  Note that lower case Greek letters (\verb|\alpha|,
\etc) are regarded as mathematical symbols (which means that they must
be typed in math mode) and are not affected by these commands.
 
\verb|\mathbf| produces \textbf{bold face roman} letters. If you wish to have
{\boldmath $bold\ face\ math\ italic$} letters, and bold face Greek
letters and mathematical symbols, use the \verb|\boldmath| command
\emph{before} going into math mode.  This changes the default math
fonts to bold.
 
\begin{example}
\( x = 2\pi \Rightarrow x \simeq 6.28 \)
\(\mathbf{x} = 2\pi \Rightarrow x \simeq 6.28 \)
{\boldmath \(x = \mathbf{2}\pi \Rightarrow x 
           \simeq{\mathbf{6.28}}              \)}
\end{example}
 
\noindent There is also a calligraphic font for upper case letters;
these are produced by the \verb|\mathcal| command:

\begin{example}
\( \mathcal{F} \)
\end{example}
 

\section{What about \$'s?}
If you have converted to \LaTeX\ from plain or \AmSTeX, you will
probably be wondering why there has been no mention of \$ and \$\$.

In these systems math mode is surrounded by \verb|$|'s and display math mode
is surrounded by \verb|$$|. This has certain drawbacks over the \LaTeX\ system
as it is difficult for your text editor to match \verb|$|'s as it is hard to 
tell which ones are starting math mode and which are ending it. \TeX\ will also
get confused if you miss a \$ out.

The (incorrect) input 
\begin{verbatim}
let (a,b,c)$ be a Pythagorean triple, i.e.\ three 
integers such that $a^{2}+b^{2}=c^{2}$.
\end{verbatim}
produces the slightly mysterious error message
\begin{verbatim}
! Missing $ inserted.
<inserted text> 
                $
<to be read again> 
                   ^
l.56 ...triple, i.e.\ three integers such that $a^
                                                  {2}+b^{2}=c^{2}$
? 
\end{verbatim}

Note that it reports the wrong error and in the wrong place, the use of the
\verb|^| command out of math mode. \TeX\ has typeset `be a \ldots\ such that'
in math mode and \emph{exited} math mode at the \verb|$| after `such that'. 
If you had made the equivalent \LaTeX\ error, \LaTeX\ 
has a better idea of what you indended:
\begin{verbatim}
let (a,b,c)\) be a Pythagorean triple, i.e.\ three 
integers such that \(a^{2}+b^{2}=c^{2}\)
\end{verbatim}
The error message may still be unintelligable, but at least
it reports the error in the right place, you have used \verb|\)|
to end math mode when you were not in math mode (as you omitted the 
\verb|\(| which should have been before the \texttt{(a,b,c)}).
\begin{verbatim}
LaTeX error.  See LaTeX manual for explanation.
              Type  H <return>  for immediate help.
! Bad math environment delimiter.
\@latexerr ...for immediate help.}\errmessage {#1}
                                                  
\)...ifinner $\else \@badmath \fi \else \@badmath 
                                                  \fi 
l.56 let (a,b,c)\)
                   be a Pythagorean triple, i.e.\ three integers such that \...

? 
\end{verbatim}

The single dollar is sometimes useful for small
sections of math.
\begin{example}
Let $G$ be a $p$-group
\end{example}

The double dollar is \emph{not} always equivalent to \verb|\[ ... \]|,
and so should not be used if you want your \LaTeX\ file to be compatible
with different styles and options (try the \emph{fleqn} class option).

\subsection{Symbols}

The following tables show most of the symbols available from the
standard \LaTeX\ symbol fonts. Negations of the relational symbols can
be made with the \verb|\not| command:
 
\begin{example}
$G \not\equiv H$
\end{example}
 
In the appendix we have brought together a set of tables
regrouping all standard \LaTeX{} symbols
(tables~\ref{tab:greek} to \ref{tab:other}.
Tables~\ref{tab:ams-greek} to ~\ref{tab:ams-misc} show
supplementary \AmSTeX{} symbols, which are 
available when you specify the \texttt{amssymb} package.

\section{Letters}

Producing letters is simple with \LaTeX{}. To do this you use the
document style \texttt{letter}. You can make any number of letters with a
single input file.  Your name and address, which are likely to be the
same for all letters, are given once at the top of the file.  Each
letter is produced by a \texttt{letter} environment, having the name and
address of the recipient as its argument.  The letter itself begins
with an \verb|\opening| command to generate the salutation.

The letter ends with a \verb|\closing| command.  You can use the
commands \verb|\encl| and \verb|\cc| to generate lists of enclosures
and people to whom you are sending copies.  Any text that follows the
\verb|\closing| must be proceeded by a \verb|\ps| command.  This
command produces no text---you'll have to type ``P.S.'' yourself---but
is needed to format the additional text correctly.

An example will make this clearer:
\begin{quote}\footnotesize\begin{verbatim}
\documentstyle{letter}
\begin{document}

\address{1234 Avenue of the Armadillos \\
         Gnu York, G.Y. 56789}
\signature{R. (Ma) Dillo \\ Director of Cuisine}

\begin{letter}{G. Natheniel Picking \\
               Acme Exterminators \\
               Illinois}

\opening{Dear Nat,}

I'm afraid that the armadillo problem is still with us.
I did everything ...

... and I hope that you can get rid of the nasty
beasts this time.

\closing{Best Regards,}
\cc{Jimmy Carter\\Richard M. Nixon}
\end{letter}

\end{document}
\end{verbatim}\end{quote}


\section{Errors}

When you create a new input file for \LaTeX, you will probably make
mistakes.  Everybody does, and it's nothing to be worried about.  As
with most computer programs, there are two sorts of mistake that you
can make: those that \LaTeX{} notices and those that it doesn't.  To
take a rather silly example, since \LaTeX{} doesn't understand what
you are typing, it isn't going to be worried if you mis-spell some of
the words in your text; you will just have to accurately proof-read
your printed output.  On the other hand, if you mis-spell one of the
environment names in your file then \LaTeX{} won't know what you want
it to do.

When this sort of thing happens, \LaTeX{} prints an error message on
your terminal screen and then stops and waits for you to take some
action.  The error messages that it produces may seem user-unfriendly
and not a little frightening at first.  Nevertheless, if you know
where to look they will probably tell you where the error is and what
went wrong.

Consider what would happen if you mistyped \verb|\begin{itemize}| as
\verb|\begin{itemie}|.  When \LaTeX{} processes this instruction, it
displays the following on your terminal:
\begin{quote}\footnotesize
\begin{verbatim}
LaTeX error.  See LaTeX manual for explanation.
              Type  H <return>  for immediate help.
! Environment itemie undefined.
\@latexerr ...for immediate help.}\errmessage {#1}
                                                  \endgroup
l.140 \begin{itemie}

?
\end{verbatim}\end{quote}
After typing the `?' \LaTeX{} stops and waits for you to tell it what
to do.

The first two lines of the message just tell you that the error was
detected by \LaTeX{}. The third line, the one that starts `!' is the
\emph{error indicator}.  It tells you what the problem is, though until
you have had some experience of \LaTeX{} this may not mean a lot to
you.  In this case it is just telling you that it doesn't recognise an
environment called \fn{itemie}.  The next two lines tell you what
\LaTeX{} was doing when it found the error; they are irrelevant at the
moment and can be ignored. The final line is called the \emph{error
locator}, and is a copy of the line in your file that caused the
problem.  It starts with a line number to help you to find it in your
file.  If the error was in the middle of a line, it will be shown
broken at the point where \LaTeX{} realized that there was an error.
As with all computer programs, \LaTeX{} can sometimes pass the point
where the real error was before discovering that something is wrong,
but it doesn't usually get very far.

At this point you could do several things.  If you knew enough about
\LaTeX{} you might be able to fix the problem, or you could type
`\fn{X}' and press the return key to stop \LaTeX{} running while you
go and correct the error.  The best thing to do, however, is just to
press the return key.  This will allow \LaTeX{} to go on running as if
nothing had happened.  If you have made one mistake, then you have
probably made several and you may as well try to find them all in one
go.  It's much more efficient to do it this way than to run \LaTeX{}
over and over again fixing one error at a time. Don't worry about
remembering what the errors were---a copy of all the error messages is
being saved in a \emph{log} file so that you can look at them
afterwards.  See your \emph{local guide} to find out what this file
is called.

If you look at the line that caused the error, it's normally obvious
what the problem was.  If you can't work out what your problem is,
look at the hints below and, if they don't help, consult Chapter~6 of
Lamport's book: it contains a list of all of the error messages that
you are likely to encounter, together with some suggestions as to what
may have caused them.

Some of the most common mistakes that cause errors are:
\begin{itemize}
\item A mis-spelt command or environment name.

\item Improperly matched `\verb|{|' and `\verb|}|'---remember that
  they should always come in pairs.

\item Trying to use one of the ten special characters \verb|# $ % & _ { } ~ ^|
  and \verb|\| as an ordinary printing symbol.

\item A missing \verb|\end| command.

\item A missing command argument (that's the bit enclosed in
  '\verb|{|' and `\verb|}|').
\end{itemize}
A single error can get \LaTeX{} so confused that it reports a series
of spurious errors as a result.  If you have an error that you
understand, followed by a series that you don't, then try correcting
the first error---the rest may vanish as if by magic.

Sometimes \LaTeX{} may write a \texttt{*} and stop without an error
message.  This is normally caused by a missing \verb|\end{document}|
command, though other errors can cause it.  If this happens type
\verb|\stop| and press the return key.

Finally, \LaTeX{} will sometimes print \emph{warning} messages.  They
report problems that were not bad enough to cause \LaTeX{} to stop
processing, but nevertheless may require investigation.  The most
common problems are `overfull' and `underfull' lines of text.  A
message like:
\begin{quote}\footnotesize\begin{verbatim}
Overfull \hbox (10.58649pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 172--175
[]\tenrm Mathematical for-mu-las may be dis-played. A dis-played
\end{verbatim}\end{quote}
indicates that \LaTeX{} could not find a good place to break a line
when laying out a paragraph.  As a result, it was forced to let the
line stick out into the right-hand margin, in this case by 10.6
points.  Since a point is $1/72.27$~inches, this may be rather hard to
see, but it will be there nonetheless.

This particular problem happens because \LaTeX{} is rather fussy about
line breaking, and it would rather generate a line that is too long
than generate a paragraph that doesn't meet its high standards.  The
simplest way around the problem is to enclose the entire offending
paragraph between \verb|\begin{sloppypar}| and \verb|\end{sloppypar}|
commands.  This tells \LaTeX{} that you are happy for it to break its
own rules while it is working on that particular bit of text.

Alternatively, messages about ``Underfull \verb|\hbox|es'' may
appear.  These are lines that had to have more space inserted between
words than \LaTeX{} would have liked.  In general there is not much
that you can do about these.  Your output will look fine, even if the
line looks a bit stretched.  About the only thing you could do is to
re-write the offending paragraph!


\section{A Final Reminder}

You now know enough \LaTeX{} to produce a wide range of documents.
But this document has only scratched the surface of the things that
\LaTeX{} can do.  This entire document was itself produced with
\LaTeX{} (with no sticking things in or clever use of a photocopier)
and even it hasn't used all the features that it could.  From this you
may get some feeling for the power that \LaTeX{} puts at your
disposal.

Please remember what was said in the introduction: if you \emph{do}
have a complex document to produce then \emph{go and read Lamport's
book}.  You will be wasting your time if you rely only on what you
have read here.
Once you have used \LaTeX{} for some time, you might want to know
how to use the many style file extensions, which have
been developed to aid \LaTeX{} users to typeset their documents.
This and much else (like how to use \emph{MakeIndex}, for generating
indices, or \BibTeX{}, for managing your bibliographies) is covered
in \emph{The \LaTeX{} Companion}\cite{GMS:companion}.
Finally the final word about \TeX{} is Knuth's 
\emph{\TeX{} book}\cite{Knuth:texbook}.

And one other warning: having dabbled with \LaTeX{} your documents will
never be the same again\ldots

\newpage

\appendix

\section{Mathematical symbols}

\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*{8}{l}}
\X\alpha     &\X\beta      &\X\gamma   &\X\delta \\
\X\epsilon   &\X\varepsilon&\X\zeta    &\X\eta   \\
\X\theta     &\X\vartheta  &\X\iota    &\X\kappa \\
\X\lambda    &\X\mu        &\X\nu      &\X\xi    \\
\X o         &\X\pi        &\X\varpi   &\X\rho   \\
\X\varrho    &\X\sigma     &\X\varsigma&\X\tau   \\
\X\upsilon   &\X\phi       &\X\varphi  &\X\chi   \\
\X\psi       &\X\omega                           \\[5pt]
\X\Gamma     &\X\Delta     &\X\Theta   &\X\Lambda\\
\X\Xi        &\X\Pi        &\X\Sigma   &\X\Upsilon\\
\X\Phi       &\X\Psi       &\X\Omega
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Greek letters}\label{tab:greek}
\end{table}
\index{Greek letters}
 
\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*{8}{l}}
\X\pm    &\X\cap     &\X\diamond        &\X\oplus  \\
\X\mp    &\X\cup     &\X\bigtriangleup  &\X\ominus \\
\X\times &\X\uplus   &\X\bigtriangledown&\X\otimes \\
\X\div   &\X\sqcap   &\X\triangleleft   &\X\oslash \\
\X\ast   &\X\sqcup   &\X\triangleright  &\X\odot   \\
\X\star  &\X\vee     &\X\lhd$^a$        &\X\bigcirc\\
\X\circ  &\X\wedge   &\X\rhd$^a$        &\X\dagger \\
\X\bullet&\X\setminus&\X\unlhd$^a$      &\X\ddagger\\
\X\cdot  &\X\wr      &\X\unrhd$^a$      &\X\amalg  \\[2pt]
\multicolumn{8}{l}{$^a$ \small Not predefined in \LaTeXe. 
Use the packages \texttt{latexsym} or \texttt{amssymb}}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Binary operation symbols}\label{tab:bin}
\end{table}
\index{binary operators}

\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*{10}{l}}
\X\leq     &\X\geq     &\X\equiv &\X\models    &\X\prec       \\
\X\succ    &\X\sim     &\X\perp  &\X\preceq    &\X\succeq     \\
\X\simeq   &\X\mid     &\X\ll    &\X\gg        &\X\asymp      \\
\X\parallel&\X\subset  &\X\supset&\X\approx    &\X\bowtie     \\
\X\subseteq&\X\supseteq&\X\cong  &\X\Join      &\X\sqsubset   \\
\X\sqsupset&\X\neq     &\X\smile &\X\sqsubseteq&\X\sqsupseteq \\
\X\doteq   &\X\frown   &\X\in    &\X\ni        &\X\propto     \\
\X=        &\X\vdash   &\X\dashv &\X<          &\X>           \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Relation symbols}\label{tab:rel}
\end{table}
\index{relation operators}
 
\clearpage

\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*8l}
\Y\rmoustache&  \Y\lmoustache&  \Y\rgroup&      \Y\lgroup\\[5pt]
\Y\arrowvert&   \Y\Arrowvert&   \Y\bracevert
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Large delimiters\label{tab:ldels}}
\end{table}
\index{large delimiters}


\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*{8}{l}}
\X\uparrow&\X\Uparrow&\X\downarrow  &\X\Downarrow  \\
\X\{      &\X\}      &\X\updownarrow&\X\Updownarrow\\
\X\lfloor &\X\rfloor &\X\lceil      &\X\rceil      \\
\X\langle &\X\rangle &\X/           &\X\backslash  \\
\X|       &\X\|      &              &              \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Delimiters\label{tab:dels}}
\end{table}
\index{delimiters}

\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*{6}{l}}
\X\leftarrow      &\X\longleftarrow     &\X\uparrow    \\
\X\Leftarrow      &\X\Longleftarrow     &\X\Uparrow    \\
\X\rightarrow     &\X\longrightarrow    &\X\downarrow  \\
\X\Rightarrow     &\X\Longrightarrow    &\X\Downarrow  \\
\X\leftrightarrow &\X\longleftrightarrow&\X\updownarrow\\
\X\Leftrightarrow &\X\Longleftrightarrow&\X\Updownarrow\\
\X\mapsto         &\X\longmapsto        &\X\nearrow    \\
\X\hookleftarrow  &\X\hookrightarrow    &\X\searrow    \\
\X\leftharpoonup  &\X\rightharpoonup    &\X\swarrow    \\
\X\leftharpoondown&\X\rightharpoondown  &\X\nwarrow
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Arrow symbols}\label{tab:arrow}
\end{table}
\index{arrows}
 
\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*{10}{l}}
\X\ldots       &\X\cdots    &\X\vdots      &\X\ddots    &\X\aleph    \\
\X\prime       &\X\forall   &\X\infty      &\X\hbar     &\X\emptyset \\
\X\exists      &\X\nabla    &\X\surd       &\X\Box$^a$  &\X\triangle \\
\X\Diamond$^a$ &\X\imath    &\X\jmath      &\X\ell      &\X\neg      \\
\X\top         &\X\flat     &\X\natural    &\X\sharp    &\X\wp       \\
\X\bot         &\X\clubsuit &\X\diamondsuit&\X\heartsuit&\X\spadesuit\\
\X\mho$^a$     &\X\Re       &\X\Im         &\X\angle    &\X\partial  \\[2pt]
\multicolumn{10}{l}{$^a$ \small Not predefined in \LaTeXe.
Use the packages \texttt{latexsym} or \texttt{amssymb}}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Miscellaneous symbols}\label{tab:ord}
\end{table}
\index{miscellaneous symbols}
 
\clearpage

\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*{8}{l}}
\Z\arccos &\Z\cos  &\Z\csc &\Z\exp &\Z\ker    &\Z\limsup &\Z\min &\Z\sinh \\
\Z\arcsin &\Z\cosh &\Z\deg &\Z\gcd &\Z\lg     &\Z\ln &\Z\Pr  &\Z\sup  \\
\Z\arctan &\Z\cot  &\Z\det &\Z\hom &\Z\lim    &\Z\log    &\Z\sec &\Z\tan  \\
\Z\arg  &\Z\coth &\Z\dim &\Z\inf &\Z\liminf &\Z\max    &\Z\sin &\Z\tanh
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Log-like symbols}\label{tab:log}
\end{table}
\index{log-like operators}
 
\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*{10}l}
\W\hat{a}&\W\acute{a}&\W\bar{a}&\W\dot{a}&\W\breve{a}\\
\W\check{a}&\W\grave{a}&\W\vec{a}&\W\ddot{a}&\W\tilde{a}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Math mode accents}\label{tab:accent}
\end{table}
\index{math mode accents}


\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*{10}{l}}
\X\sum     &\X\prod      &\X\coprod   &\X\int      & \X\oint    \\
\X\bigcap  &\X\bigcup    &\X\bigsqcup &\X\bigvee   & \X\bigwedge\\
\X\bigodot &\X\bigotimes &\X\bigoplus &\X\biguplus &            \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Variable-sized  symbols}\label{tab:op}
\end{table}
\index{variable size symbols}
 
\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*4l}
\W\widetilde{abc}       &\W\widehat{abc}                        \\
\W\overleftarrow{abc}   &\W\overrightarrow{abc}                 \\
\W\overline{abc}        &\W\underline{abc}                      \\
\W\overbrace{abc}       &\W\underbrace{abc}                     \\[5pt]
\W\sqrt{abc}            &$\sqrt[n]{abc}$&\verb|\sqrt[n]{abc}|   \\
$f'$&\verb|f'|          &$\frac{abc}{xyz}$&\verb|\frac{abc}{xyz}|
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{\protect\LaTeX{} math constructs}\label{tab:other}
\end{table}
\index{complex math operators}

\index{AMS!symbols}%
\index{symbols!AMS}%


\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*6l}
\X\hbar          &\X\hslash       &\X\vartriangle      \\
\X\triangledown  &\X\square       &\X\lozenge          \\
\X\circledS      &\X\angle        &\X\measuredangle    \\
\X\nexists       &\X\mho          &\X\Finv$^a$         \\
\X\Game$^a$      &\X\Bbbk$^a$     &\X\backprime        \\
\X\varnothing    &\X\blacktriangle&\X\blacktriangledown\\
\X\blacksquare   &\X\blacklozenge &\X\bigstar          \\
\X\sphericalangle&\X\complement   &\X\eth              \\
\X\diagup$^a$    &\X\diagdown$^a$ \\[2pt]
\multicolumn{6}{l}{$^a$ \small Not defined in style \texttt{amssymb}, 
define using the \LaTeXe{} \Cmd{DeclareMathSymbol} command}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{AMS miscellaneous symbols}
\label{tab:ams-misc}
\end{table}
\index{miscellaneous symbols (AMS)}

\clearpage

\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*{10}{l}}
\X\digamma      &\X\varkappa & \X\beth &\X\daleth      &\X\gimel
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{AMS Greek and Hebrew}
\label{tab:ams-greek}
\label{tab:ams-hebrew}
\end{table}
\index{Greek symbols (AMS)}\index{Hebrew symbols (AMS)}

\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*8l}
\X\ulcorner&\X\urcorner&\X\llcorner&\X\lrcorner
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{AMS delimiters}
\label{tab:ams-del}
\end{table}
\index{delimiters (AMS)}

\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*6l}
\X\dashrightarrow       &\X\dashleftarrow        &\X\leftleftarrows      \\
\X\leftrightarrows      &\X\Lleftarrow           &\X\twoheadleftarrow    \\
\X\leftarrowtail        &\X\looparrowleft        &\X\leftrightharpoons   \\
\X\curvearrowleft       &\X\circlearrowleft      &\X\Lsh                 \\
\X\upuparrows           &\X\upharpoonleft        &\X\downharpoonleft     \\
\X\multimap             &\X\leftrightsquigarrow  &\X\rightrightarrows    \\
\X\rightleftarrows      &\X\rightrightarrows     &\X\rightleftarrows     \\
\X\twoheadrightarrow    &\X\rightarrowtail       &\X\looparrowright      \\
\X\rightleftharpoons    &\X\curvearrowright      &\X\circlearrowright    \\
\X\Rsh                  &\X\downdownarrows       &\X\upharpoonright      \\
\X\downharpoonright     &\X\rightsquigarrow
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{AMS arrows}
\label{tab:ams-arrows}
\end{table}
\index{arrows (AMS)}
 
\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*6l}
\X\nleftarrow           &\X\nrightarrow          &\X\nLeftarrow          \\
\X\nRightarrow          &\X\nleftrightarrow      &\X\nLeftrightarrow
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{AMS negated arrows}
\label{tab:ams-narrows}
\end{table}
\index{negated arrows (AMS)}
 

\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*6l}
\X\dotplus        &\X\smallsetminus&\X\Cap           \\
\X\Cup            &\X\barwedge     &\X\veebar        \\
\X\doublebarwedge &\X\boxminus     &\X\boxtimes      \\
\X\boxdot         &\X\boxplus      &\X\divideontimes \\
\X\ltimes         &\X\rtimes       &\X\leftthreetimes\\
\X\rightthreetimes&\X\curlywedge   &\X\curlyvee      \\
\X\circleddash    &\X\circledast   &\X\circledcirc   \\
\X\centerdot      &\X\intercal
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{AMS binary operators}
\label{tab:ams-bin}
\end{table}
\index{binary operators (AMS)}

\clearpage

\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*6l}
\X\leqq            &\X\leqslant          &\X\eqslantless       \\
\X\lesssim         &\X\lessapprox        &\X\approxeq          \\
\X\lessdot         &\X\lll               &\X\lessgtr           \\
\X\lesseqgtr       &\X\lesseqqgtr        &\X\doteqdot          \\
\X\risingdotseq    &\X\fallingdotseq     &\X\backsim           \\
\X\backsimeq       &\X\subseteqq         &\X\Subset            \\
\X\sqsubset        &\X\preccurlyeq       &\X\curlyeqprec       \\
\X\precsim         &\X\precapprox        &\X\vartriangleleft   \\
\X\trianglelefteq  &\X\vDash             &\X\Vvdash            \\
\X\smallsmile      &\X\smallfrown        &\X\bumpeq            \\
\X\Bumpeq          &\X\geqq              &\X\geqslant          \\
\X\eqslantgtr      &\X\gtrsim            &\X\gtrapprox         \\
\X\gtrdot          &\X\ggg               &\X\gtrless           \\
\X\gtreqless       &\X\gtreqqless        &\X\eqcirc            \\
\X\circeq          &\X\triangleq         &\X\thicksim          \\
\X\thickapprox     &\X\supseteqq         &\X\Supset            \\
\X\sqsupset        &\X\succcurlyeq       &\X\curlyeqsucc       \\
\X\succsim         &\X\succapprox        &\X\vartriangleright  \\
\X\trianglerighteq &\X\Vdash             &\X\shortmid          \\
\X\shortparallel   &\X\between           &\X\pitchfork         \\
\X\varpropto       &\X\blacktriangleleft &\X\therefore         \\
\X\backepsilon     &\X\blacktriangleright&\X\because
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{AMS binary relations}
\label{tab:ams-rel}
\end{table}
\index{binary relations (AMS)}
 
\begin{table}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{*6l}
\X\nless           &\X\nleq           &\X\nleqslant        \\
\X\nleqq           &\X\lneq           &\X\lneqq            \\
\X\lvertneqq       &\X\lnsim          &\X\lnapprox         \\
\X\nprec           &\X\npreceq        &\X\precnsim         \\
\X\precnapprox     &\X\nsim           &\X\nshortmid        \\
\X\nmid            &\X\nvdash         &\X\nvDash           \\
\X\ntriangleleft   &\X\ntrianglelefteq&\X\nsubseteq        \\
\X\subsetneq       &\X\varsubsetneq   &\X\subsetneqq       \\
\X\varsubsetneqq   &\X\ngtr           &\X\ngeq             \\
\X\ngeqslant       &\X\ngeqq          &\X\gneq             \\
\X\gneqq           &\X\gvertneqq      &\X\gnsim            \\
\X\gnapprox        &\X\nsucc          &\X\nsucceq          \\
\X\succnsim        &\X\succnapprox    &\X\ncong            \\
\X\nshortparallel  &\X\nparallel      &\X\nvDash           \\
\X\nVDash          &\X\ntriangleright &\X\ntrianglerighteq \\
\X\nsupseteq       &\X\nsupseteqq     &\X\supsetneq        \\
\X\varsupsetneq    &\X\supsetneqq     &\X\varsupsetneqq    \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{AMS negated binary relations}
\label{tab:ams-nrel}
\end{table}
\index{negated binary relations (AMS)}
\clearpage

\section{Horrible Mathematical Examples to Study}

\begin{example}
\begin{equation}
  \phi(t)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}}
  \int^t_0 e^{-x^2/2} dx 
\end{equation}
\end{example}

\begin{example}
\begin{equation}
  \prod_{j\geq 0}
  \left(\sum_{k\geq 0}a_{jk} z^k\right) 
= \sum_{k\geq 0} z^n
  \left( \sum_{{k_0,k_1,\ldots\geq 0}
          \atop{k_0+k_1+\ldots=n}    }
        a{_0k_0}a_{1k_1}\ldots  \right) 
\end{equation}
\end{example}

\begin{example}
\begin{equation}
\pi(n) = \sum_{m=2}^{n}
  \left\lfloor \left(\sum_{k=1}^{m-1}
       \lfloor(m/k)/\lceil m/k\rceil 
       \rfloor \right)^{-1}
  \right\rfloor
\end{equation}
\end{example}

\begin{example}
\begin{equation}
\{\underbrace{%
    \overbrace{\mathstrut a,\ldots,a}^{k\ a's},
    \overbrace{\mathstrut b,\ldots,b}^{l\ b's}}
  _{k+1\ \mathrm{elements}}                   \}
\end{equation}
\end{example}

\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\mbox{W}^+\
\begin{array}{l}
\nearrow\raise5pt\hbox{$\mu^+ + \nu_{\mu}$}\\
\rightarrow         \pi^+ +\pi^0         \\[5pt]
\rightarrow \kappa^+ +\pi^0              \\
\searrow\lower5pt\hbox{$\mathrm{e}^+ 
          +\nu_{\scriptstyle\mathrm{e}}$}
\end{array}
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}

\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
{F}(x,y)=0\quad\mathrm{and}\quad
 \left|\begin{array}{ccc}
  F_{xx}'' & F_{xy}'' & F_{x}' \\
  F_{yx}'' & F_{yy}'' & F_{y}' \\
  F_{x}'   & F_{y}'   & 0
       \end{array}      \right| =0
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}

\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\frac{\pm
\left|\begin{array}{ccc}
x_1-x_2  & y_1-y_2 & z_1-z_2 \\
l_1      & m_1     & n_1     \\
l_2      & m_2     & n_2
\end{array}\right|}{
\sqrt{\left|\begin{array}{cc}l_1&m_1\\
l_2&m_2\end{array}\right|^2
+     \left|\begin{array}{cc}m_1&n_1\\
n_1&l_1\end{array}\right|^2
+     \left|\begin{array}{cc}m_2&n_2\\
n_2&l_2\end{array}\right|^2}}
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}

\newcommand{\CA}{C_{\mathrm{A}}}
\newcommand{\CV}{C_{\mathrm{V}}}
\newcommand{\CPA}{{C'}_{\mathrm{A}}}
\newcommand{\CPV}{{C'}_{\mathrm{V}}}
\newcommand{\GZ}{\Gamma^2_{\mathrm{Z}}}
\newcommand{\MZ}{M^2_{\mathrm{Z}}}
\newcommand{\MZs}{{(s-M^2_{\mathrm{Z})}}}
\newcommand{\BE}{\left\{\frac{\displaystyle 3-\beta^2}%
                             {\displaystyle 2}\right\}}
\begin{eqnarray}
\sigma^f_0(Q,T_{3R},\beta,s) & = &
      \frac{4\pi\alpha^2}{3s}\beta \times
        \left[ \frac{Q^2 \BE - 2Q \CV \CPV s \MZs}{\MZs^2 + \MZ \GZ \BE}
            \right.                                   \nonumber \\[-3mm]
                             &   &                              \\[-3mm]
                             & + &
      \left.\frac{(\CV^2 + \CA^2) s^2}%
                 {\MZs^2+\MZ\GZ\left\{\CPV^2 \BE+\CPA^2 \{\beta^2\}\right\}}
        \right]                                       \nonumber
\end{eqnarray}

\begin{verbatim}
\newcommand{\CA}{C_{\rm A}}     \newcommand{\CV}{C_{\rm V}}
\newcommand{\CPA}{{C'}_{\rm A}} \newcommand{\CPV}{{C'}_{\rm V}}
\newcommand{\GZ}{\Gamma^2_{\rm Z}}
\newcommand{\MZ}{M^2_{\rm Z}}   \newcommand{\MZs}{{(s-M^2_{\rm Z})}}
\newcommand{\BE}{\left\{\frac{\displaystyle 3-\beta^2}{\displaystyle 2}\right\}}
\begin{eqnarray}
\sigma^f_0(Q,T_{3R},\beta,s) & = &
      \frac{4\pi\alpha^2}{3s}\beta \times
        \left[ \frac{Q^2 \BE - 2Q \CV \CPV s \MZs}{\MZs^2 + \MZ \GZ \BE}
            \right.                                   \nonumber \\[-3mm]
                             &   &                              \\[-3mm]
                             & + &
      \left.\frac{(\CV^2 + \CA^2) s^2}%
                 {\MZs^2+\MZ\GZ\left\{\CPV^2 \BE+\CPA^2 \{\beta^2\}\right\}}
        \right]                                       \nonumber
\end{eqnarray}
\end{verbatim}

\begin{thebibliography}{10}

\bibitem{Lamport:latex}
Leslie Lamport.
\newblock \emph{\LaTeX---A Document Preparation System---User's
  Guide and Reference Manual}.
\newblock Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, USA, 1985.

\bibitem{Knuth:texbook}
Donald~E. Knuth.
\newblock \emph{The {\TeX}book}, volume~A of \emph{Computers and Typesetting}.
\newblock Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, USA, 1986.

\bibitem{GMS:companion}
Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach and Alexander Samarin.
\newblock \emph{The \LaTeX\ Companion}
\newblock Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, USA, 1993.

\end{thebibliography}

\printindex

\end{document}
